Why Tuberculosis (TB) is a Contemporary Public Health Issue - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2230 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Medicine Essay Type Analytical essay Level High school Did you like this example? With reference to the UK, discuss the reasons why tuberculosis (TB) is a contemporary public health issue and give examples of relevant public health and health promotion initiatives. With the exception of HIV/AIDS, infection with the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTB) causes more human deaths each year than any other infectious agent (World Health Organization, 2014a). The symptoms of tuberculosis (TB) are often non-specific and depend on the site of infection. Patients may present with fever, anorexia, weight loss, night sweats or lassitude, but a persistent productive cough is the hallmark of pulmonary tuberculosis (Department of Health, 2006). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Why Tuberculosis (TB) is a Contemporary Public Health Issue" essay for you Create order MTB bacilli multiply within infected macrophages for long periods of time and may be transported in the lymphatics or bloodstream to any part of the body (Gill and Beeching, 2004). Humans are the only reservoir of infection and transmission of tuberculosis occurs when infectious respiratory secretions are aerosolized by coughing, sneezing or talking. These may remain suspended in the air for long periods and are small enough to reach terminal air spaces if inhaled (Gill and Beeching, 2004). Patients with lung disease are the main source of infection and 52% of cases notified in the UK in 2013 had pulmonary disease (Public Health England, 2014c). 5 to 10% of people will develop active tuberculosis after primary infection reducing to 3% within one year of exposure; however over 90% of MTB infection is non-pathogenic within a normal human lifespan (Gill and Beeching, 2004). The incidence of tuberculosis in the UK in 2013 (12.3/100 000) was higher than most other Western Europ ean countries (European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC)/WHO Regional Office for Europe, 2013) and nearly five times as high as the United States (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013), having increased steadily since the late 1980’s (Public Health England, 2014a). Rates of infection have declined by 11.6% in the past two years, where 73% of cases occurred among people born outside the UK. Of these, India, Pakistan and Somalia were the most common countries of origin but only 15% were recent migrants indicating a high rate of reactivation of latent tuberculosis (Public Health England, 2014c). The number of migrants from countries with very high TB incidence (250 per 100,000) decreased by 68% in the last decade and indicators of recent transmission reflect a decline in primary infections. However, the rate of infection among the UK born adult population has remained stable (Public Health England, 2014c) and strain typing suggests that up to 4 0% of all UK cases may be newly acquired (Public Health England, 2014a). Consequently, Public Health England has identified TB as a major priority (12). Globally, tuberculosis affects predominately young adults (World Health Organization, 2014b) and the highest rates of infection in the non-UK born population are among 25 to 29 year olds. Of patients born in Britain, TB is most virulent in those aged over 75 years and both sexes are equally at risk (Public Health England, 2014c). The burden of TB in England is concentrated in the most deprived communities of large urban areas and London accounted for 37.8% of patients in 2013 (Public Health England, 2014c). Nearly half of these cases were unemployed and 10% had a history of alcohol or drug misuse, homelessness or imprisonment. 6% were health-care workers (Public Health England, 2014c). Tuberculosis is particularly virulent among the immunosuppressed and people with HIV are 26 to 31 times more likely to contract the disease. Tobacco use has also been associated with 20% of TB cases worldwide (World Health Organization, 2014b). TB is transmitted most effectively in environments where MTB microbes accumulate in the atmosphere, for example in overcrowded and poorly ventilated living and working conditions (Gill and Beeching, 2004). Individuals with close and/or prolonged contact with a patient with pulmonary tuberculosis or connections to higher-prevalence areas of the world are particularly at risk (Department of Health, 2006). Transmission is also favoured by dark and humid conditions, such as mines and prisons (Gill and Beeching, 2004) and several authors have implicated vitamin D deficiency in the disease pathogenesis, although findings are varied and inconclusive (Kearns et al., 2014). Active TB may be mild or asymptomatic for many months and sufferers may unknowingly infect up to 15 people over the course of a year (World Health Organization, 2014b). Drug-resistant TB is an increasing probl em in the UK and multi-drug resistant TB comprised 1.6% of cases in 2012 (Public Health England, 2013a). Although MDR tuberculosis is unlikely to be more contagious, patients are infectious for longer than those with fully sensitive tuberculosis (Borrell and Gagneux, 2009, Anderson et al., 2014). The features of effective national TB control programmes have been well documented (National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, 2011, Story et al., 2012, Department of Health TB Action Plan Team, 2007, Public Health England, 2014a) and include transparent systems of accountability, adequate resources, active local implementation and close outcome monitoring (Abubakar et al., 2011). These activities are managed in the UK by Public Health England together with a wide range of stakeholders such as NHS England, and include screening. Screening strategies differ for the detection of early active and latent asymptomatic TB, the latter of which is recommended by NICE for individua ls at high risk of infection (National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, 2011) and referred to as active case finding (ACF) (Golub et al., 2005, Zenner et al., 2013). Identifying tuberculosis early allows for prompt treatment and reduces transmission (Public Health England, 2014b). In the UK, ACF is targeted at healthcare workers involved in exposure prone procedures, close contacts of known or suspected tuberculosis patients, and people with social risk factors such as homelessness, drug or alcohol misuse, imprisonment or migration from high risk countries (National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, 2012). Several local authorities and primary care trusts have successfully piloted such schemes, although weaknesses in coordination and targeting have been identified (Pareek et al., 2011a). London’s UCLH Find and Treat Service, for example, screens almost 10 000 socially vulnerable people at high risk of tuberculosis annually (University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, 2014). Various UK charities, such as ‘TB Alert’, raise public awareness of tuberculosis and support Primary Care Trusts. They build capacity of third sector organisations and inform and subsidize patients and communities (TB Alert, 2014). The UK Border Agency, in collaboration with the International Organization for Migration, conducts pre-entry screening for active infection across 15 countries where tuberculosis is common (over 40/100,000) (Home Office UK Border Agency, 2012, Public Health England, 2013b). Visa applicants from these countries wishing to stay in the UK for more than 6 months are screened for pulmonary TB and granted entry only on receipt of a certificate of clearance (Public Health England, 2014b). Funding from the Health Protection Agency (HPA) also supports screening activity at Heathrow and Gatwick airports (Home Office UK Border Agency, 2012). Screening is routinely offered to asylum seekers and refugees acc epted for resettlement into the UK through the Gateway Programme (Home Office UK Border Agency, 2012). There is further evidence that screening migrants for latent TB on entry to the UK is cost effective for the NHS (Pareek et al., 2011b). Internationally, the World Health Organization operates via the Stop TB Partnership to set targets, procure and grant funds and resources, lobby governments, educate and advocate on behalf of TB communities (World Health Organization, 2006, Stop TB Partnership, 2014). Simultaneously, not-for-profit product development partnerships such as the TB Alliance endeavour to develop new TB drug regimens (Horsburgh et al., 2013, Lienhardt et al., 2012a, Lienhardt et al., 2012b, Clinton Health Access Initiative et al., 2010). School vaccination of the indigenous UK population was halted in 2005 following a decline in the incidence of TB and the Bacillus Calmette-Guà ©rin immunisation (BCG) is now targeted at neonates within high risk groups (Depar tment of Health, 2006). These UK endeavours contribute towards the WHO target to eliminate TB as a public health problem by 2050 (World Health Organization, 2006). References ABUBAKAR, I., LIPMAN, M., ANDERSON, C., DAVIES, P. ZUMLA, A. 2011. Tuberculosis in the UKtime to regain control. BMJ, 343, d4281. ANDERSON, L. F., TAMNE, S., BROWN, T., WATSON, J. P., MULLARKEY, C., ZENNER, D. ABUBAKAR, I. 2014. Transmission of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in the UK: a cross-sectional molecular and epidemiological study of clustering and contact tracing. Lancet Infect Dis., 14, 406-15. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(14)70022-2. Epub 2014 Mar 4. BORRELL, S. GAGNEUX, S. 2009. Infectiousness, reproductive fitness and evolution of drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The international journal of tuberculosis and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 13, 1456-66. CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION 2013. Trends in Tuberculosis United States, 2012. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 62, 201-2. CLINTON HEALTH ACCESS INITIATIVE, BILL MELINDA GATES FOUNDATION, GLOBAL ALLIANCE F OR TB DRUG DEVELOPMENT, GLOBAL DRUG FACILITY, INTERNATIONAL UNION AGAINST TUBERCULOSIS AND LUNG DISEASE, MANAGEMENT SCIENCES FOR HEALTH TREATMENT ACTION GROUP 2010. Falling Short. Ensuring Access to Simple, Safe and Effective First-Line Medicines for Tuberculosis. New York: Global Alliance for TB Drug Development. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH TB ACTION PLAN TEAM. 2007. Tuberculosis prevention and treatment: a toolkit for planning, commissioning and delivering high-quality services in England [Online]. London: Department of Health. Available: https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130107105354/http:[email  protected]/* */[email  protected]/* *//documents/digitalasset/dh_075638.pdf [Accessed 19/12/2014]. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH 2006. Chapter 32 Tuberculosis. In: SALISBURY, D., RAMSAY, M. NOAKES, K. (eds.) Immunisation against infectious disease The Green Book. 3rd ed. London: The Stationery Office. EUROPEAN CENTRE FOR DISEASE PREVENTION AND CONTROL (ECDC)/WHO REGI ONAL OFFICE FOR EUROPE. 2013. Tuberculosis surveillance and monitoring in Europe 2013 [Online]. Stockholm: European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Available: https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications/_layouts/forms/Publication_DispForm.aspx?List=4f55ad51-4aed-4d32-b960-af70113dbb90ID=811 [Accessed 19/12/2014]. GILL, G. V. BEECHING, N. J. 2004. Chapter 12 Tuberculosis. Tropical Medicine. 5th ed. Oxford: Blackwell Science. GOLUB, J. E., MOHAN, C. I., COMSTOCK, G. W. CHAISSON, R. E. 2005. Active case finding of tuberculosis: historical perspective and future prospects. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis., 9, 1183-203. HOME OFFICE UK BORDER AGENCY 2012. Screening for Tuberculosis and the Immigration Control. UK Border Agency Review of Current Screening Activity 2011 (Central Policy Unit). London: Home Office. HORSBURGH, C. R., JR., HAXAIRE-THEEUWES, M., LIENHARDT, C., WINGFIELD, C., MCNEELEY, D., PYNE-MERCIER, L., KESHAVJEE, S. VARAINE, F. 2013. Compassionate use o f and expanded access to new drugs for drug-resistant tuberculosis. The international journal of tuberculosis and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 17, 146-52. KEARNS, M. D., ALVAREZ, J. A., SEIDEL, N. TANGPRICHA, V. 2014. Impact of Vitamin D on Infectious Disease: A Systematic Review of Controlled Trials. Am J Med Sci, 20, 20. LIENHARDT, C., GLAZIOU, P., UPLEKAR, M., LONNROTH, K., GETAHUN, H. RAVIGLIONE, M. 2012a. Global tuberculosis control: lessons learnt and future prospects. Nature reviews. Microbiology, 10, 407-16. LIENHARDT, C., RAVIGLIONE, M., SPIGELMAN, M., HAFNER, R., JARAMILLO, E., HOELSCHER, M., ZUMLA, A. GHEUENS, J. 2012b. New drugs for the treatment of tuberculosis: needs, challenges, promise, and prospects for the future. The Journal of infectious diseases, 205 Suppl 2, S241-9. NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR HEALTH AND CARE EXCELLENCE. 2011. Clinical guidance and management of tuberculosis, and measures for its prevention and control. CG117 [Online]. Available: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg117 [Accessed 19/12/2014]. NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR HEALTH AND CARE EXCELLENCE. 2012. Identifying and managing tuberculosis among hard-to-reach groups. PH37 [Online]. Available: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg117 [Accessed 19/12/2014]. PAREEK, M., ABUBAKAR, I., WHITE, P. J., GARNETT, G. P. LALVANI, A. 2011a. Tuberculosis screening of migrants to low-burden nations: insights from evaluation of UK practice. Eur Respir J., 37, 1175-82. doi: 10.1183/09031936.00105810. Epub 2010 Nov 11. PAREEK, M., WATSON, J. P., ORMEROD, L. P., KON, O. M., WOLTMANN, G., WHITE, P. J., ABUBAKAR, I. LALVANI, A. 2011b. Screening of immigrants in the UK for imported latent tuberculosis: a multicentre cohort study and cost-effectiveness analysis. The Lancet. Infectious diseases, 11, 435-44. PUBLIC HEALTH ENGLAND 2013a. Tuberculosis in the UK: 2013 report. London. PUBLIC HEALTH ENG LAND. 2013b. UK pre-entry tuberculosis screening brief report 2013 [Online]. London: Public Health England. Available: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/tuberculosis-pre-entry-screening-in-the-uk [Accessed 19/12/2014]. PUBLIC HEALTH ENGLAND. 2014a. Collaborative Tuberculosis Strategy for England 2014 to 2019: For consultation [Online]. London. Available: https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/collaborative-tuberculosis-strategy-for-england-2014-to-2019 [Accessed 19/12/2014]. PUBLIC HEALTH ENGLAND. 2014b. Guidance: Tuberculosis screening. Tuberculosis (TB) screening and early detection methods, for professionals working with at-risk populations in the UK. [Online]. Available: https://www.gov.uk/tuberculosis-screening#pre-entry-tb-screening-for-migrants [Accessed 18/12/2014]. PUBLIC HEALTH ENGLAND 2014c. Tuberculosis in the UK: 2014 report. London. STOP TB PARTNERSHIP 2014. The Stop TB Partnership. Leading the fight against TB. Geneva: Stop TB Partnership. STORY, A., COCKSEDGE, M., ANDERTON, A., EDGINTON, M., O’DONOGHUE, M., KON, O. M., TAMNE, S., MAW, J. POLLINGER, E. 2012. Tuberculosis case management and cohort review guidance for health professionals [Online]. London: Royal College of Nursing. Available: https://www.rcn.org.uk/%5F%5Fdata/assets/pdf%5Ffile/0010/439129/004204.pdf [Accessed 19/12/2014]. TB ALERT. 2014. Our Work in the UK [Online]. Brighton. Available: https://www.tbalert.org/what-we-do/uk/ [Accessed 19/12/2014]. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON HOSPITALS NHS FOUNDATION TRUST. 2014. Find and Treat Service [Online]. Available: https://www.uclh.nhs.uk/OurServices/ServiceA-Z/HTD/Pages/MXU.aspx [Accessed 19/12/2014]. WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION. 2006. The Stop TB Strategy [Online]. World Health Organization. Available: https://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2006/WHO_HTM_STB_2006.368_eng.pdf [Accessed 19/12/2014]. WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION. 2014a. Global tuberculosis report 2014 [Online]. Geneva: World Health Orga nization. Available: https://www.who.int/tb/publications/global_report/en/ [Accessed 19/12/2014]. WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION. 2014b. Tuberculosis Fact Sheet No. 104 [Online]. Geneva: World Health Organization. Available: https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs104/en/ [Accessed 19/12/2014]. ZENNER, D., SOUTHERN, J., VAN HEST, R., DEVRIES, G., STAGG, H. R., ANTOINE, D. ABUBAKAR, I. 2013. Active case finding for tuberculosis among high-risk groups in low-incidence countries. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis., 17, 573-82. doi: 10.5588/ijtld.12.0920.

The Legend of Sleepy Hollow Quotes

The Legend of Sleepy Hollow is a supernatural tale by Washington Irving. Here are a few famous quotes from the story. Quotes The chief part of the stories, however, turned upon the favorite specter of Sleepy Hollow, the Headless Horseman, who had been heard several times of late, patrolling the country; and, it was said, tethered his horse nightly among the graves in the churchyard. I profess not to know how women’s hearts are wooed and won. To me, they have always been matters of riddle and admiration. Some seem to have but one vulnerable point, or door of access; while others have a thousand avenues, and may be captured in a thousand different ways. It is a great triumph of skill to gain the former, but a still greater proof of generalship to maintain possession of the latter, for a man must battle for his fortress at every door and window. He who wins a thousand common hearts is therefore entitled to some renown; but he who keeps undisputed sway over the heart of a coquette, is indeed a hero. On mounting a rising ground, which brought the figure of his fellow-traveller in relief against the sky, gigantic in height, and muffled in a cloak, Ichabod was horror-struck on perceiving that he was headless! – but his horror was still more increased on observing that the head, which should have rested on his shoulders, was carried before him on the pommel of his saddle! It was, as I have said, a fine autumnal day; the sky was clear and serene, and nature wore that rich and golden livery which we always associate with the idea of abundance. The forests had put on their sober brown and yellow, while some trees of the tenderer kind had been nipped by the frosts into brilliant dyes of orange, purple, and scarlet. Local tales and superstitions thrive best in these sheltered, long settled retreats; but are trampled under foot, by the shifting throng that forms the population of most of our country places. Besides, there is no encouragement for ghosts in most of our villages, for they have scarce had time to finish their first nap, and turn themselves in their graves, before their surviving friends have traveled away from the neighborhood, so that when they turn out of a night to walk the rounds, they have no acquaintance left to call upon. This is perhaps the reason why we so seldom hear of ghosts except in our long-established Dutch communities. As the enraptured Ichabod fancied all this, and as he rolled his great green eyes over the fat meadow-lands, the rich fields of wheat, of rye, of buckwheat, and Indian corn, and the orchards burthened with ruddy fruit, which surrounded the warm tenement of Van Tassel, his heart yearned after the damsel who was to inherit these domains, and his imagination expanded with the idea, how they might be readily turned into cash, and the money invested in immense tracts of wild land, and shingle palaces in the wilderness. Nay, his busy fancy already realized his hopes, and presented to him the blooming Katrina, with a whole family of children, mounted on the top of a wagon loaded with household trumpery, with pots and kettles dangling beneath; and he beheld himself bestriding a pacing mare, with a colt at her heels, setting out for Kentucky, Tennessee, or the Lord knows where! Ichabod only lingered behind, according to the custom of country lovers, to have a tete-a-tete with the heiress; fully convinced that he was now on the high road to success. What passed at this interview I will not pretend to say, for in fact, I do not know. Something, however, I fear me, must have gone wrong, for he certainly sallied forth, after no very great interval, with an air quite desolate and chopfallen—Oh these women! these women! Could that girl have been playing off any of her coquettish tricks?—Was her encouragement of the poor pedagogue all a mere sham to secure her conquest of his rival?—Heaven only knows, not I! The mysterious event caused much speculation at the Church on the following Sunday. Knots of gazers and gossips were collected in the churchyard, at the bridge, and at the spot where the hat and pumpkin had been found. The stories of Brouwer, of Bones, and a whole budget of others, were called to mind; and when they had diligently considered them all and compared them with the symptoms of the present case, they shook their heads, and came to the conclusion that Ichabod had been carried off by the galloping Hessian. As he was a bachelor, and in nobody’s debt, nobody troubled his head any more about him, the school was removed to a different quarter of the hollow, and another pedagogue reigned in his stead. This neighborhood, at the time of which I am speaking, was one of those highly favored places which abound with chronicle and great men. The British and American line had run near it during the war—it had, therefore, been the scene of marauding, and been infested with refugees, cowboys, and all kinds of border chivalry. Just sufficient time had elapsed to enable each storyteller to dress up his tale with a little becoming fiction, and in the indistinctness of his recollection, to make himself the hero of every exploit. The schoolmaster is generally a man of some importance in the female circle of a rural neighborhood, being considered a kind of idle gentlemanlike personage, of vastly superior taste and accomplishments to the rough country swains, and, indeed, inferior in learning only to the parson. There was something extremely provoking in this obstinately pacific system; it left Brom no alternative but to draw upon the funds of rustic waggery in his disposition, and to play off boorish practical jokes upon his rival. It was a matter of no little vanity to him, on Sundays, to take his station in front of the church gallery, with a band of chosen singers; where, in his own mind, he completely carried away the palm from the parson. Certain it is, his voice resounded far above all the rest of the congregation; and there are peculiar quavers still to be heard in that church, and which may even be heard half a mile off, quite to the opposite side of the mill-pond, on a still Sunday morning, which are said to be legitimately descended from the nose of Ichabod Crane. Thus, by divers little make-shifts in that ingenious way which is commonly denominated â€Å"by hook and by crook,† the worthy pedagogue got on tolerably enough, and was thought, by all who understood nothing of the labor of headwork, to have a wonderfully easy life of it. The old country wives, however, who are the best judges of these matters, maintain to this day that Ichabod was spirited away by supernatural means; and it is a favorite story often told about the neighborhood round the winter evening fire.

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Tda 2.2 Safeguarding the Welfare of Children and Young...

-3.1 Identify the characteristics of different types of child abuse. There are four categories of abuse: - Physical, Neglect, Emotional and sexual. Physical Abuse Physical abuse is the intentional deliberate use of physical force or violence to hurt or injure a child. It may include slapping, punching, pulling hair, hitting, beating with objects, burning with cigarettes/cooker rings, scalding, shaking, biting, squeezing, cutting, throwing, poisoning, attempting to suffocate/drown or giving inappropriate drugs/alcohol. Some of the signs and symptoms of physical abuse are bruises in places that would not be associated with a child falling over accidentally, these may happen frequently. They maybe finger marks from being grabbed, burns†¦show more content†¦They may be frequently unwell and have poor general health, they may have nappy rash, cradle cap or constantly have nits. They may be dirty and not washed; they may have dirty or inappropriate clothes for the time of year. They may be tired/ lethargic as they are not getting enough sleep and or not eating correctly. Other signs may be that the child is often late for school or nursery and have poor attendance. The child may be withdrawn and have low self-esteem and confidence. They may have an inability to form friendships and feel sad. They may be destructive and aggressive and have neurotic behaviour where they sit and rock or twist their hair as they have nothing to stimulate them. They may have poor language skills as they are not encouraged to have conversations with their parents, they may be delayed in development in other ways as they are not encouraged to push themselves physically. They may have limited experiences as they are never have any interaction with their parents, they are never taken to the park or taken on days out. Emotional Harm Emotional harm is when a child is not praised a lot by their parents and are constantly put down and made to feel worthless and have low self-esteem and self-confidence. The child may have little or inconsistent love or warmth from their parents. The parents may reject theShow MoreRelatedTda 2.2 Safeguarding the Welfare of Children and Young People.2245 Words   |  9 PagesTDA 2.2 Safeguarding the welfare of children and young people. Introduction Safeguarding the welfare of children and young people is a high priority in the workplace, and certain actions and procedures must be followed to ensure the safety of all children, both inside and outside of school. There are several different areas that must be addressed when considering safeguarding the welfare of children and young people, both within the school environment and the home environment. TDA 2Read MoreTDA 3.2 organisation in schools Essay3183 Words   |  13 Pagestitle Unit type Level Credit 1 F/601/3327 TDA 3.1 Communication and professional relationships with children, young people and adults Knowledge skill 3 2 2 A/601/3326 TDA 3.2 Schools as organisations Knowledge 3 3 3 F/601/4073 TDA 3.3 Support learning activities Knowledge skill 3 4 4 A/601/4069 TDA 3.4 Promote children and young people’s positive behaviour Knowledge skill 3 3 5 H/601/4065 TDA 3.5 Develop professionalRead MoreTda 2.21843 Words   |  8 PagesTDA 2.2 Task 1 1.1 * Identify the current legislation, guidelines, policies and procedures for safeguarding the welfare of children and young people, including e-safety. 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1.In Your Own Words, Define The Term “Metaphysics” As Used

1. In your own words, define the term â€Å"metaphysics† as used in the discipline of philosophy. Use examples from your reading of the textbook to illustrate at least two options in metaphysics. My definition of Metaphysics: Philosophy is not something that can be explained so easily. It is something complex and with several sides. One of those parts of philosophy is known as metaphysics. Coincidently, metaphysics is known to be the base of philosophy. Metaphysics is the study of reality. Metaphysicians ask themselves these type questions: what is reality? Does anything exist? Is anything that we see or believe in real? My examples of metaphysics from the book: I will be using Plato and Aristotle’s metaphysics examples. Interestingly enough,†¦show more content†¦This just means that he believes in two realities: The reality of physical things and the reality of the immaterial things (Lavine 26). The reality of physical objects consists of material things existing. Not only were they real, but they exist within time and space. These objects in the material world are everchanging; They grow, die, change, and can be witnessed through our senses (Lavine 26). Material objects can be anything that we see and that changes within our world: people, animals, plants, cars and anything else that is tangible. On the other hand, the objects in the immaterial world do not exist in our physical world, within time or space. They are essentially the essences of the objects in the material world, they never change. (Lavine 26). Much like blueprints depict an original design and the objects built are e ssentially just copies of the original model. This is Plato’s metaphysics. The definition of an Eternal Form: The subject of an Eternal Form comes directly from Plato’s theory of forms. Plato refers to the objects in the immaterial world as forms or concepts (Lavine 37). These concepts provide us with the necessary information about our objects in the physical world (Lavine 37). They are essentially an original blueprint of any object providing us with the common knowledge of all things that are like each other. These concepts are the original and unchangingShow MoreRelatedThe Main Contributions Of Immanuel Kant1385 Words   |  6 Pagesfound in Justice with Michael Sandel, â€Å"Kant argues that morality is based neither on the principle of utility, nor on a law of nature, but on human reason. According to Kant, reason tells us what we ought to do, and when we obey our own reason, only then are we truly free†.1 To imply utilitarian, an opposing theory, would be to derive that the outcome of moral actions are based solely on the merits of a positive result, i.e. for the means of happiness. 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Pedigree Charts Essay Example For Students

Pedigree Charts Essay The information made available is the basis for the preparation of pedigree chart using the appropriate symbols, A careful examination of the pedigree chart would suggest whether the gene for the character is autosuggestion dominant or recessive, X chromosome linked dominant or recessive, Y- chromosome inked or not. Explanation Outcome Linked Dominant traits: These are the traits whose encoding gene is present on any one Of the outcomes, and the Wildlife allele is recessive to its mutant allele, i. E. , the mutant allele is dominant. The pedigree-chart can be of the underrated pattern (Fig. 11-2), where the female being interviewed is exhibiting the trait, and is indicated by an arrow- mark in the chart. The characteristic features of inheritance of such type of traits are: (a) Transmission of traits occurs from parents of either sex, (b) Males and females are equally affected. C) The pedigree is vertical, i. E. , the trait is marked to be present in each of the generations. (d) Multiple generations are characteristically affected, Practically, politically, dimple in the cheek are some of the common traits of this type. EXERCISE 11 Autocross Recessive trait: These are the traits whose mutant allele is recessive to its wild type allele. The pedigree chart can be more or less of the pattern given below (Fig. 11. 3), where the lady (marked by the arrow) is showing the trait. The bar in the example represents the presence of corresponding dominant or recessive allele for the specific trait. Suppose the given trait is albinism. Denote its dominant allele as A that produces pigments, and the recessive allele as a that tails to synthesis the pigment, melanin. The female (our subject in generation Ill) is therefore tot genotype AAA. She must have received each of her a allele from both the parents (generation-II), who are therefore themselves normal but are definitely of genotype AAA, and are carriers of the trait. The allele a must also have been present in her grand parents too, of course in heterozygous condition also to make them carriers (generation-I) Albinism in the subjects children (generation-IV) suggests her husband too to be of genotype AAA, a carrier. Marriage of her albino daughter to an albino man is bound to produce all her grand-children albino (gene-V). The following are the salient features of the inheritance of such type of traits. A) Occur in equal proportions in multiple male and female siblings, whose parents are normal but carriers; (b) The siblings are homozygous for the defective allele, but their parents, though some may appear normal, are obviously heterozygous, i. E. , are merely carriers of the trait. C) Consanguinity (marriage between man and woman genetically related to each other , such as cousins) occasionally results in the appearance of such traits. X-Linked Dominant traits: These are the traits whose encoding gene is present on the X- chromosome, and the mutant allele of which is dominant over its wild-type allele. Such traits are very rare, and are almost difficult to find in the population. One example is oral-facial-digital syndrome (Dutchmen Muscular Dystrophy), which results in absence of teeth, cleft (bid) tongue associated with mental retardation. The pedigree chart may appear as follows (Fig. 1 4): The possible genotypes of the above pedigree can be written as follows (Fig Fig. 1 1. 5 Genotypes Of individuals shown in Pig. II . 4 Here, the dominant mutant allele is denoted by D, and its recessive wild type allele is denoted by Remember that human females have two X-chromosomes (XX), and the males have only one X and one Y chromosome. .ub48c527e759b8a7ba320566ad03b6e0b , .ub48c527e759b8a7ba320566ad03b6e0b .postImageUrl , .ub48c527e759b8a7ba320566ad03b6e0b .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ub48c527e759b8a7ba320566ad03b6e0b , .ub48c527e759b8a7ba320566ad03b6e0b:hover , .ub48c527e759b8a7ba320566ad03b6e0b:visited , .ub48c527e759b8a7ba320566ad03b6e0b:active { border:0!important; } .ub48c527e759b8a7ba320566ad03b6e0b .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ub48c527e759b8a7ba320566ad03b6e0b { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ub48c527e759b8a7ba320566ad03b6e0b:active , .ub48c527e759b8a7ba320566ad03b6e0b:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ub48c527e759b8a7ba320566ad03b6e0b .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ub48c527e759b8a7ba320566ad03b6e0b .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ub48c527e759b8a7ba320566ad03b6e0b .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ub48c527e759b8a7ba320566ad03b6e0b .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ub48c527e759b8a7ba320566ad03b6e0b:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ub48c527e759b8a7ba320566ad03b6e0b .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ub48c527e759b8a7ba320566ad03b6e0b .ub48c527e759b8a7ba320566ad03b6e0b-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ub48c527e759b8a7ba320566ad03b6e0b:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Teaching Philosophy StatementMales receive their lone X-chromosome from their mother, and the Y-chromosomes from their father, whereas females receives one tot her X-chromosome trot her mother, and the other X from her father. The characteristics of such inheritance are: a) The trait appears in almost all the generations, and the inheritance is vertical. (b) If the female is affected, then about half of her sons are affected. (c) If the male is affected then all of his daughters would be affected, but none of his sons are affected (d) In short, the pedigree resembles the pattern of inheritance of autocross dominants, except that there is no male-to-male transmission. . X-I nked Recessive traits: These are the traits Whose encoding gene is present on the X-chromosome and its mutant allele is recessive to its wild-type allele. Red-green color blindness and hemophilia, are some Of its well known examples. The characteristic features of such inheritance are: (a) Females express the trait only when they are homozygous for the mutant allele, whereas the males do so even when they are homozygous for it. The pedigree chart would appear as the following one (Fig. 11. ): (b) About halt of the sons of the carrier (heterozygous for the trait) females are affected. In case of homozygous females showing the trait, fifty percent of her daughters and all tot her sons are likely to be affected. Therefore, the males are most affected in the population. (c) Affected persons are related to one another through the maternal side of their d) Any evidence of male-to-male transmission of the trait rules out the X- linked inheritance. Y-chromosome linked traits: These are the traits whose gene is present on the Y- chromosome. The females do not have any Y-chromosome, whereas all the males must have a Y-chromosome to be a male, and this Y-chromosome they get from their father. Therefore, any trait linked to the Y- chromosome must be present only in males, and certainly not in any Of the females. This is Why these traits are also called male-sex limited traits. All the sons of the affected male would express he trait whereas none Of his daughters would do so. The pattern of the pedigree chart would be as follows (Fig 11. ): Hypertrophies of the ear (presence of hairs on piano) is one most common example of such traits. Note: Students may be asked to prepare the pedigree-chart from given data and analyses the pattern of inheritance. The work may be done as a project. Questions 1. How will you differentiate between outcome linked dominant and sex chromosome linked dominant pedigree chart? Explain. 2. Discuss the differences in the patterns of outcome linked recessive and chromosome linked pedigree.

Hannin free essay sample

The government must show accountability for public funds and a business can use its resources as it deems appropriate. 5. Role of the Budget – Commercial it’s used for planning and control purposes, for government budgets carry the authority of law, preventing 1-3. Identify and briefly describe the three organizations that set standards for state and local governments, the federal government, and nongovernmental not-for-profit organizations. 1. GASB set the accounting and financial reporting standards for state and local government in the US. GASB also set accounting and financial reporting standards for governmentally related not for profit organizations. 2. FASB set standards for profit seeking business and for nongovernmental not for profit organizations. 3. FASAB set the accounting and financial for the federal government. 1-4. What is the definition of a government as agreed upon by the FASB and GASB? Public corporations and bodies corporate and politic are governmental organizations. Other organizations are governmental organizations if they have one or more of the following characteristics. We will write a custom essay sample on Hannin or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page . Popular election of officers or appointment (or approval) of a controlling majority of the members of the organization’s governing body by officials of one or more state or local governments. 2. The potential for unilateral dissolution by a government with the net assets reverting to a government. 3. The power to enact and enforce a tax levy. 1-5. Describe the â€Å"hierarchy of GAAP† for state and local governments, the federal government, and nongovernmental not-for-profit organizations. (See Illustration 1-2 come back to this) 1-8. GASB considers budgetary accounting and reporting to be important. List the principles outlined by GASB related to budgetary accounting and reporting. 1. An annual budget(s) should be adopted by every governmental unit. 2. The accounting system should provide the basis for appropriate budgetary control. 3. Comparisons should be included in the appropriate financial statements and schedules for governmental funds for which an annual budget has been adopted. 2-2. With regard to GASB rules for the financial reporting entity, answer the following: 1. Define the financial reporting entity. It is the primary government together with its component units. 2. Define and give an example of a primary government. Can be a state government, a general-purpose local government such as a city or county, or a special purpose government such as a school district. 3. Define and give an example of a component unit. Are legally separate organizations for which the elected officials of the primary government are financially accountable. 4. Define and describe the two methods of reporting the primary government and component units in the financial reporting entity. a. Primary Government -either appoints a voting majority of the governing body of the other organization or members of the primary governments governing body hold a majority of the seats of the other organizations board. Second, the relationship meets one of the following two criteria: a. The other organization provides either a financial burden or benefit to the primary government. b. The primary government can impose its will on the other organization. b. Component units are legally separate organizations for which the elected officials of the primary government are financially accountable. In addition, a component unit can be an organization for which the nature and significance of its relationship with a primary government are such that exclusion would cause the reporting entitys financial statements to be misleading or incomplete. 2-3. With regard to the Comprehensive Annual Financial Report (CAFR): 1. What are the three major sections? Introductory, Financial, and Statistical. 2. List the government-wide statements. Indicate the measurement focus and basis of accounting used for the government-wide statements. Basic Financial Statements Proprietary Funds Statements: Statement of Cash Flows. Governments use the accrual basis and the modified accrual basis of accounting. 3. List the governmental fund statements. i. General fund. This fund is used to account for general operations and activities not requiring the use of other funds. ii. Special revenue funds are required to account for the use of revenue earmarked by law for a particular purpose. State and federal fuel tax revenues require special revenue funds, because federal and state laws restrict these taxes to transportation uses. iii. Capital projects funds are used to account for the construction or acquisition of fixed assets[9], such as buildings, equipment and roads. Depending on its use, a fixed asset may instead be financed by a special revenue fund or a proprietary fund. iv. Debt service funds are used to account for money that will be used to pay the interest and principal of long-term debts. Bonds used by a government to finance major construction projects, to be paid by tax levies over a period of years, require a debt service fund to account for their repayment. v. Special assessment funds account for public infrastructure improvements financed by special levies against property holders. Sidewalk and alley repairs often rely on special assessments. 4. Indicate the measurement focus and basis of accounting used for the governmental fund statements. It usually rely on a modified accrual basis. 5. List the proprietary fund statements. vi. Internal service funds are used for operations serving other funds or departments within a government on a cost-reimbursement basis. A printing shop, which takes orders for booklets and forms from other offices and is reimbursed for the cost of each order, would be a suitable application for an internal service fund. vii. Enterprise funds are used for services provided to the public on a user charge basis, similar to the operation of a commercial enterprise. Water and sewage utilities are common examples of government enterprises. 5. Indicate the measurement focus and basis of accounting used for the proprietary fund statements. i. Proprietary funds, used for business-like activities, usually operate on an accrual basis. Governmental accountants sometimes refer to the accrual basis as full accrual to distinguish it from modified accrual basis accounting. 6. List the fiduciary fund statements. Statement of Changes in Fiduciary Net Assets and Statement of Changes in Fiduciary Net Assets. 7. Describe the measurement focus and basis of accounting used for the fiduciary fund statements. The accounting basis applied to fiduciary funds depends upon the needs of a specific fund. If the trust involves a business-like operation, accrual basis accounting would be appropriate to show the funds profitability. Accrual basis is also appropriate for trust funds using interest and dividends from invested principle amounts to pay for supported programs, because the profitability of those investments would be important. 8. Outline the reports and schedules to be reported as required supplementary information. Come Back To 2-4. Describe the test for determining whether a governmental fund is a major fund. The General Fund is always considered a major fund. Other governmental funds are considered major when both of the following conditions exist: (a) total assets, liabilities, revenues, or expenditures of that individual governmental fund constitute 10 percent of the total for the governmental funds category, and (b) total assets, liabilities, revenues, or expenditures of that individual governmental or enterprise fund are 5 percent of the total of the governmental and enterprise categories, combined. 2-10. Not sure